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U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF    AGRICULTURE. 


FARMERS'    BULLETIN    No.  179. 


HORSESHOEING 


BY 


JOHN  W.  ADAMS,  A.  B.,  V.  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Surgery  and  Lecturer  on  Shoeing,  Veterinary  Department, 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 


WASHINGTON  : 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING     OFFICE. 
I9O3. 


■?- 


TUFTS   UNIVERSITY   LIBRARIES 


3   9090   013   418   310 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Washington,  D.  C,  September  14,  1903. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  an  article  entitled 
"Horseshoeing,"  prepared  by  John  W.  Adams,  professor  of  surgery 
and  lecturer  on  shoeing,  veterinary  department,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  to  recommend  the  publication  of  the  same  as  a  Farmers' 
Bulletin.  This  article  was  recently  prepared  for  the  revised  edition 
of  the  Special  Report  on  Diseases  of  the  Horse,  and  will  appear  as  a 
concluding  article  in  that  publication.  It  is  believed  that  the  printing 
of  the  article  in  separate  form  will  serve  a  useful  purpose.  More- 
over, the  style  in  which  the  article  is  written  is  quite  suitable  for  its 
publication  in  the  popular  series  mentioned. 

Respectfully, 

D.  E.  Salmon, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


179 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 

Comings  S        of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 

Tufts  U 

200  Westboro  Road 

North  Grafton,  MA  01536 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introduction 7 

The  foot 7 

Gross  anatomy  of  the  foot 7 

Bones 7 

Hinge  joints 7 

Tendons  and  flexors 7 

Foot  axis 8 

Lateral  cartilages  and  plantar  cushion 8 

Pododerm  (foot  skin) 9 

Horny  box,  or  hoof 10 

Bars .". 10 

The  frog 10 

The  hoof 11 

Physiological  movements  of  the  hoof 11 

Growth  of  the  hoof 12 

Care  of  unshod  hoofs - 13 

Characteristics  of  a  healthy  hoof 1-1 

Various  forms  of  hoofs 15 

The  feet 15 

Forms  of  feet  viewed  from  in  front  and  in  profile 15 

A  front  hoof  of  the  regular  standing  position 16 

A  hoof  of  the  base-wide  position 16 

A  hoof  of  the  base-narrow  position 16 

Regular  hoof 17 

Acute-angled  hoof 17 

Upright,  or  stumpy,  hoof 17 

Wide  and  narrow  hoofs 17 

Hind  hoofs 17 

The  shoe 17 

Preliminary  examination 17 

Preparation  of  the  hoof  for  the  shoe 20 

Characteristics  of  the  shoe 20 

Form 21 

Width 21 

Thickness - 21 

Length 21 

Surfaces 21 

Borders 21 

Fullering 22 

Nail  holes 22 

Clips 22 

Special  peculiarities  of  the  chief  classes  of  shoes 22 

A  shoe  for  a  regular  hoof 22 

A  shoe  for  a  base-wide  hoof 23 

A  shoe  for  a  base-narrow  hoof 23 

A  shoe  for  an  acute-angled  hoof 23 

A  shoe  for  a  stumpy  hoof 23 

Hot  fitting 24 

The  bar  shoe 24 

The  rubber  pad 24 

Illustrations  of  shoeing  in  connection  with  interfering,  etc.  „ 27 

179  5 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

Fig.    1.  Ground  surface  of  a  right  fore  hoof  of  the  regular  form 14 

2.  Pair  of  fore  feet  of  regular  form  in  regular  standing  position 15 

3.  Pair  of  fore  feet  of  base-wide  form  in  toQ-wide  standing  position 15 

4.  Pair  of  fore  feet  of  base-narrow  form  in  toe-narrow  standing  position.  16 

5.  Forms  of  hoofs 16 

6.  Limbs  and  hoofs  in  profile 18 

7.  Left  fore  foot  of  regular  form,  shod  with  a  plain  "fullered"  shoe 22 

8.  Side  view  of  hoof  and  shoe 23 

9.  An  acute-angled  left  fore  hoof  shod  with  a  bar  shoe 25 

10.  A  fairly  formed  right  fore  ice  shoe  for  a  roadster 25 

11.  Left  fore  foot  of  regular  form  shod  with  a  rubber  pad  and  "three- 

quarter"  shoe 26 

12.  A  narrow  right  fore  hoof  of  the  base-wide  (toe-wide)  standing  posi- 

tion, shod  with  a  plain,   "dropped -crease"  shoe  to  prevent  the 

toe  cutting  (interfering) 26 

13.  Hoof  surface  of  a  right  hind  shoe  to  prevent  interfering 27 

14.  Ground  surface  of  a  shoe  shown  in  the  previous  figure 27 

15.  Side  view  of  a  fore  hoof  shod  so  as  to  quicken  the  "breaking  over" 

(quicken  the  action)  in  a  "forger"  28 

16.  Side  view  of  a  short-toed  hind  hoof  of  a  forger,  shod  to  slow  the 

action  and  to  prevent  injury  to  the  fore  heels  by  the  toe  of  the  hind 
shoe _ 28 

17.  A  toe-weight  shoe  to  increase  the  length  of  stride  of  fore  feet 29 

18.  Most  common  form  of  punched  heel-weight  shoe  to  induce  high 

action  in  fore  feet 29 

6 

179 


HORSESHOEING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Bad  and  indifferent  shoeing  frequently  leads  to  diseases  of  the  feet 
and  to  irregularities  of  gait  which  may  render  a  horse  unserviceable. 
It  is  important,  therefore,  to  consider  the  principles  involved  in  shoe- 
ing healthy  hoofs.  In  this  discussion  of  the  subject  it  is  intended 
to  give  the  intelligent  horse  owner  sufficient  information,  based  on 
experience  and  upon  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  foot  and  leg, 
to  enable  him  to  avoid  the  more  serious  consequences  of  improper 
shoeing. 

THE  FOOT. 

Let  us  first  examine  the  mechanism  of  the  foot  and  learn  something 
of  its  structure  and  of  the  natural  movements  of  its  component  parts, 
that  we  may  be  prepared  to  recognize  deviations  from  the  normal  and 
to  apply  the  proper  corrective. 

GROSS  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT. 

Bones. — The  bones  of  the  foot  are  four  in  number,  three  of  which — 
the  long  pastern,  short  pastern,  and  coffinbone — placed  end  to  end,  form 
a  continuous  straight  column  passing  downward  and  forward  from  the 
fetlock  joint  to  the  ground.  A  small  accessory  bone,  the  navicular,  or 
"  shuttle,"  bone,  lies  crosswise  in  the  foot  between  the  wings  of  the 
coffinbone  and  forms  part  of  the  joint  surface  of  the  latter.  The  short 
pastern  projects  about  1£  inches  above  the  hoof  and  extends  about  an 
equal  distance  into  it. 

Hinge  joints. — The  pasterns  and  the  coffinbone  are  held  together  by 
strong  fibrous  cords  passing  between  each  two  bones  and  placed  at  the 
sides  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  forward  and  backward  movement 
of  the  bones.  The  joints  are  therefore  hinge  joints,  though  imperfect, 
because,  while  the  chief  movements  are  those  of  extension  and  flexion 
in  a  single  plane,  some  slight  rotation  and  lateral  movements  are 
possible. 

Tendons  and  flexors. — The  bones  are  still  further  bound  together  and 
supported  by  three  long  fibrous  cords  or  tendons.  One,  the  extensor 
tendon  of  the  toe,  passes  down  the  front  of  the  pasterns  and  attaches 
to  the  coffinbone  just  below  the  edge  of  the  hair;  when  pulled  upon 
by  its  muscle  this  tendon  draws  the  toe  forward  and  enables  the  horse 
to  place  the  hoof  flat  upon  the  ground.     The  other  two  tendons  are 

179  7 


8 

placed  behind  the  pasterns  and  are  called  flexors,  because  they  flex,  or 
bend,  the  pasterns  and  coffinbone  backward.  One  of  these  tendons  is 
attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the  short  pastern,  while  the  other  passes 
down  between  the  heels,  glides  over  the  under  surface  of  the  navic- 
ular bone,  and  attaches  itself  to  the  under  surface  of  the  coffinbone. 
These  two  tendons  not  only  flex,  or  fold  up,  the  foot  as  the  latter 
leaves  the  ground,  during  motion,  but  at  rest  assist  the  suspensory 
ligament  in  supporting  the  fetlock  joint. 

Foot-axis. — The  foot-axis  is  an  imaginary  line  passing  from  the  fet- 
lock joint  through  the  long  axes  of  the  two  pasterns  and  coffinbone. 
This  imaginary  line,  which  shows  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  and 
coffinbone,  should  always  be  straight — that  is,  never  broken,  either 
forward  or  backward  when  viewed  from  the  side,  or  inward  or  out 
ward  when  observed  from  in  front.  Viewed  from  one  side,  the  long 
axis  of  the  long  pastern,  when  prolonged  to  the  ground,  should  be 
parallel  to  the  line  of  the  toe.  Viewed  from  in  front,  the  long  axis 
of  the  long  pastern,  when  prolonged  to  the  ground,  should  cut  the 
hoof  exactly  at  the  middle  of  the  toe. 

Raising  the  heels  or  shortening  the  toe  not  only  tilts  the  coffinbone 
forward  and  makes  the  hoof  stand  steeper  at  the  toe,  but  slackens 
the  tendon  that  attaches  to  the  under  surface  of  the  coffinbone, 
and  therefore  allows  the  fetlock  joint  to  sink  downward  and  back- 
ward and  the  long  pastern  to  assume  a  more  nearly  horizontal  posi- 
tion. The  foot-axis,  viewed  from  one  side,  is  now  broken  forward; 
that  is,  the  long  pastern  is  less  steep  than  the  toe,  and  the  heels 
are  either  too  long  or  the  toe  is  too  short.  On  the  other  hand,  raising 
the  toe  or  lowering  the  heels  of  a  foot  with  a  straight  foot-axis  not 
only  tilts  the  coffinbone  backward  and  renders  the  toe  more  nearly 
horizontal,  but  tenses  the  perforans  tendon,  which  then  forces  the  fet- 
lock joint  forward,  causing  the  long  pastern  to  stand  steeper.  The 
foot-axis,  seen  from  one  side,  is  now  broken  backward — an  indication 
that  the  toe  is  relatively  too  long  or  that  the  heels  are  relatively  too 
low. 

Lateral  cartilages  and  plantar  cushion.— The  elastic  tissues  of  the 
foot  are  preeminently  the  lateral  cartilages  and  the  plantar  cushion. 
The  lateral  cartilages  are  two  irregularly  four-sided  plates  of  gristle, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  foot,  extending  from  the  wings  of  the 
coffinbone  backward  to  the  heels  and  upward  to  a  distance  of  an  inch 
or  more  above  the  edge  of  the  hair,  where  the}'  may  be  felt  by  the 
lingers.  When  sound,  these  plates  are  elastic  and  yield  readily  to 
moderate  finger  pressure,  but  from  various  causes  may  undergo  ossi- 
fication,  in  which  condition  they  are  hard  and  unyielding.  The 
plantar  cushion  is  a  wedge-shaped  mass  of  tough,  elastic,  fibro-fatty 
tissue  filling  all  the  space  between  the  lateral  cartilages,  forming  the 
fleshy  heels  and  the  fleshy  frog,  and  serving  as  a  buffer  to  disperse 
shock  when  the  foot  is  set  to  the  ground.     It  extends  forward  under- 

179 


neath  the  navicular  bone  and  perforans  tendon,  and  protects  these 
structures  from  injurious  pressure  from  below.  Instantaneous  photo- 
graphs show  that  at  speed  the  horse  sets  the  heels  to  the  ground  before 
other  parts  of  the  foot — conclusive  proof  that  the  function  of  this 
tough,  elastic  structure  is  to  dissipate  and  render  harmless  violent 
impact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground. 

Pododerm  (foot  skin). — The  horn-producing  membrane,  or  "quick," 
as  it  is  commonly  termed,  is  merely  a  downward  prolongation  of  the 
"  derm,"  or  true  skin,  and  may  be  conveniently  called  the  pododerm 
(foot  skin).  The  pododerm  closely  invests  the  coffin  bone,  lateral  car- 
tilages, and  plantar  cushion,  much  as  a  sock  covers  the  human  foot, 
and  is  itself  covered  by  the  horny  capsule,  or  hoof.  It  differs  from  the 
external,  or  hair,  skin  in  having  no  sweat  or  oil  glands,  but,  like 
it,  is  richly  supplied  with  blood  vessels  and  sensitive  nerves.  And, 
just  as  the  derm  of  the  hair  skin  produces  upon  its  outer  surface  layer 
upon  layer  of  horny  cells  (epiderm),  which  protect  the  sensitive  and 
vascular  derm,  so,  likewise,  in  the  foot  the  pododerm  produces  over 
its  entire  surface  soft  cells,  which,  pushed  away  by  more  recent  cells 
forming  beneath,  lose  moisture  by  evaporation  and  are  rapidly  trans- 
formed into  the  corneous  material  which  we  call  the  hoof.  It  is  proper 
to  regard  the  hoof  as  a  greatly  thickened  epiderm,  having  many  of 
the  qualities  possessed  by  such  epidermal  structures  as  hair,  feathers, 
nails,  claws,  etc. 

The  functions  of  the  pododerm  are  to  produce  the  hoof  and  to  unite 
it  firmly  to  the  foot. 

There  are  five  parts  of  the  pododerm,  easily  distinguishable  when 
the  hoof  has  been  removed,  namely:  (1)  The  perioplic  baud,  a  narrow 
ridge  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide,  running  along 
the  edge  of  the  hair  from  one  heel  around  the  toe  to  the  other.  This 
band  produces  the  perioplic  horn,  the  thin  varnish-like  layer  of  glis- 
tening horn,  which  forms  the  surface  of  the  Avail,  or  "crust,"  and 
whose  purpose  seems  to  be  to  retard  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
the  wall.  (2)  The  coronary  band,  a  prominent  fleshy  cornice  encir- 
cling the  foot  just  below  and  parallel  to  the  perioplic  band.  At  the 
heels  it  is  reflected  forward  along  the  sides  of  the  fleshy  frog  to 
become  lost  near  the  apex  of  this  latter  structure.  The  coronet  pro- 
duces the  middle  layer  of  the  wall,  and  the  reflected  portions  produce 
the  "bars,"  which  are,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  merely  as  a  turning- 
forward  of  the  wall.  (3)  The  fleshy  leaves,  500  to  600  in  number,  par- 
allel to  one  another,  running  downward  and  forward  from  the  lower 
edge  of  the  coronary  band  to  the  margin  of  the  fleshy  sole.  They 
produce  the  soft,  light-colored  horny  leaves  which  form  the  deepest 
layer  of  the  wall,  and  serve  as  a  strong  bond  of  union  between  the 
middle  layer  of  the  wall  and  the  fleshy  leaves  with  which  they  dovetail. 
(4)  The  fleshy  sole,  which  covers  the  entire  under  surface  of  the  foot, 
excepting  the  fleshy  frog  and  bars.     The  horny  sole  is  produced  by 

179 


10 

the  fleshy  sole.  (5)  The  fleshy  frog,  which  covers  the  under  surface 
of  the  plantar  cushion  and  produces  the  horny  frog. 

Horny  box,  or  hoof. — The  horny  box,  or  hoof,  consists  of  wall 
and  bars,  sole  and  frog.  The  wall  is  all  that  part  of  the  hoof  which 
is  visible  when  the  foot  is  on  the  ground  (see  fig.  8).  As  already 
stated,  it  consists  of  three  layers — the  periople,  the  middle  layer,  and 
the  leafy  layer. 

Bars. — The  bars  (see  fig.  1)  are  forward  prolongations  of  the  wall, 
and  are  gradually  lost  near  the  point  of  the  frog.  The  angle  between 
the  wall  and  a  bar  is  called  the  "buttress."  Each  bar  lies  against  the 
horny  frog  on  one  side  and  incloses  a  wing  of  the  sole  on  the  other,  so 
that  the  least  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  horny  frog  separates  or 
approximates  the  bars,  and  through  them  the  lateral  cartilages  and  the 
walls  of  the  quarters.  The  lower  border  of  the  wall  is  called  the 
"  bearing  edge,"  and  is  the  surface  against  which  the  shoe  bears.  By 
dividing  the  entire  lower  circumference  of  the  wall  into  five  equal 
parts,  a  toe,  two  side  walls,  and  two  quarters  will  be  exhibited.  The 
"heels,"  strictly  speaking,  are  the  two  rounded  soft  prominences  of 
the  plantar  cushion,  lying  one  above  each  quarter.  The  outer  wall  is 
usually  more  slanting  than  the  inner,  and  the  more  slanting  half  of  a 
hoof  is  always  the  thicker.  In  front  hoofs  the  wall  is  thickest  at  the 
toe  and  gradually  thins  out  toward  the  quarters,  where  in  some  horses 
it  may  not  exceed  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  In  hind  hoofs  there  is  much 
less  difference  in  thickness  between  the  toe,  side  walls,  and  quarters. 
The  horny  sole,  from  which  the  flakes  of  old  horn  have  been  removed, 
is  concave  and  about  as  thick  as  the  wall  at  the  toe.  It  is  rough, 
uneven,  and  often  covered  by  flakes  of  dead  horn  in  process  of  being 
loosened  and  cast  off.  Behind,  the  sole  presents  an  opening  into  which 
are  received  the  bars  and  horny  frog.  This  opening  divides  the  sole 
into  a  body  and  two  wings. 

The  periphery  of  the  sole  unites  with  the  lower  border  of  the  wall 
and  bars  through  the  medium  of  the  white  line,  which  is  the  cross 
section  of  the  leafy  horn  layer  of  the  wall,  and  of  short  plugs  of  horn 
which  grow  down  from  the  lower  ends  of  the  fleshy  leaves.  This 
white  line  is  of  much  importance  to  the  shoer,  since  its  distance  from 
the  outer  border  of  the  hoof  is  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  in  the 
white  line  all  nails  should  be  driven. 

The  frog. — The  frog,  secreted  by  the  pododerm  covering  the  plantar 
cushion  or  fatty  frog,  and  presenting  almost  the  same  form  as  the  lat- 
ter, lies  as  a  soft  and  very  elastic  wedge  between  the  bars  and  between 
the  edges  of  the  sole  just  in  front  of  the  bars.  A  broad  and  shallow 
depression  in  its  center  divides  it  into  two  branches,  which  diverge  as 
they  pass  backward  into  the  horny  bulbs  of  the  heel.  In  front  of  the 
middle  cleft  the  two  branches  unite  to  form  the  body  of  the  frog,  which 
ends  in  the  point  of  the  frog.     The  bar  of  a  bar  shoe  should  rest  on  the 

179 


11 

branches  of  the  frog-.  In  unshod  hoofs  the  bearing  edge  of  the  wall, 
the  sole,  frog,  and  bars  are  all  on  a  leveL;  that  is,  the  under  surface 
of  the  hoof  is  perfectly  flat,  and  each  of  these  structures  assists  in 
bearing  the  body  weight. 

THE  HOOF. 

With  respect  to  solidity,  the  different  parts  of  the  hoof  vary  widely. 
The  middle  layer  of  the  wall  is  harder  and  more  tenacious  than  the 
sole,  for  the  latter  crumbles  away  or  passes  off  in  larger  or  smaller 
flakes  on  its  under  surface,  while  no  such  spontaneous  shortening  of 
the  wall  occurs.  The  white  line  and  the  frog  are  soft  horn  structures, 
and  differ  from  hard  horn  in  that  their  horn  cells  do  not,  under 
natural  conditions,  become  hard  and  hornlike.  They  are  very  elastic, 
absorb  moisture  rapidly,  and  as  readily  dry  out  and  become  hard, 
brittle,  and  easily  fissured.  Horn  of  good  quality  is  fine-grained  and 
tough,  while  bad  horn  is  coarse-grained,  and  either  mellow  and  friable 
or  hard  and  brittle.  All  horn  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and  the 
harder  (dryer)  the  horn,  the  more  slowly  does  it  transmit  extremes  of 
temperature. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL  MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  HOOF. 

A  hoof  while  supporting  the  body  weight  has  a  different  form,  and 
the  structures  inclosed  within  the  hoof  have  a  different  position  than 
when  not  bearing  weight.  Since  the  amount  of  weight  borne  by  a 
foot  is  continually  changing,  and  the  relations  of  internal  pressure  are 
continuously  varying,  a  foot  is,  from  a  physiological  viewpoint,  never 
at  rest.  The  most  marked  changes  of  form  of  the  hoof  occur  when 
the  foot  bears  the  greatest  weight,  namely,  at  the  time  of  the  greatest 
descent  of  the  fetlock.  Briefly,  these  changes  of  form  are:  (1)  An 
expansion  or  widening  of  the  whole  back  half  of  the  foot  from  the 
coronet  to  the  lover  edge  of  the  quarters.  This  expansion  varies 
between  one-fiftieth  and  one-twelfth  of  an  inch.  (2)  A  narrowing  of 
the  front  half  of  the  foot,  measured  at  the  coronet.  (3)  A  sinking  of 
the  heels  and  a  flattening  of  the  wings  of  the  sole.  These  changes  are 
more  marked  in  the  half  of  the  foot  that  bears  the  greater  weight. 

The  changes  of  form  occur  in  the  following  order:  When  the  foot 
is  set  to  the  ground  the  body -weight  is  transmitted  through  the  bones 
and  sensitive  and  horny  leaves  to  the  wall.  The  coffinbone  and  navic- 
ular bone  sink  a  little  and  rotate  backward.  At  the  same  time  the 
short  pastern  sinks  backward  and  downward  between  the  lateral  carti  - 
lages  and  presses  the  perforans  tendon  upon  the  plantar  cushion.  This 
cushion  being  compressed  from  aboveand  being  unable  to  expand  down- 
ward by  reason  of  the  resistance  of  the  ground  acting  against  the 
horny  frog,  acts  like  any  other  elastic  mass  and  expands  toward  the 
sides,  pushing  before  it  the  yielding  lateral  cartilages  and  the  wall  of 
the  quarters.     This  expansion  of  the  heels  is  assisted  and  increased  by 

179 


12 

the  simultaneous  flattening  and  lateral  expansion  of  the  resilient  horny 
frog,  which  crowds  the  bars  apart,  Of  course,  when  the  lateral  carti- 
lages are  ossified  not  only  is  no  expansion  of  the  quarters  possible, 
but  frog  pressure  often  leads  to  painful  compression  of  the  plantar 
cushion  and  to  increase  of  lameness.  Frog  pressure  is  therefore 
contra-indicated  in  lameness  due  to  sidebones  (ossified  cartilages). 
Under  the  descent  of  the  coffinbone  the  horny  sole  sinks  a  little;  that 
is,  the  arch  of  the  sole  around  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  the  wings  of 
the  sole  become  somewhat  flattened.  All  these  changes  of  form  are 
most  marked  in  sound  unshod  hoofs,  because  in  them  ground  pressure 
on  the  frog  and  sole  is  pronounced;  they  are  more  marked  in  fore 
hoofs  than  in  hind  hoofs. 

The  movement  of  the  different  structures  within  the  foot  and  the 
changes  of  form  that  occur  at  every  step  are  indispensable  to  the  health 
of  the  hoof,  so  that  these  elastic  tissues  must  be  kept  active  by  regu- 
lar exercise,  with  protection  against  drying  out  of  the  hoof.  Long- 
continued  rest  in  the  stable,  drying  out  of  the  hoof,  and  shoeing 
decrease  or  alter  the  physiological  movements  of  the  hoof  and  some- 
times lead  to  foot  diseases.  Since  these  movements  are  complete  and 
spontaneous  only  in  unshod  feet,  shoeing  must  be  regarded  as  an  evil, 
albeit  a  necessary  one,  and  indispensable  if  we  wish  to  keep  horses 
continuously  serviceable  on  hard  artificial  roads.  However,  if  in 
shoeing  we  bear  in  mind  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  hoof  and 
apply  a  shoe  whose  branches  have  a  wide  and  level  bearing  surface, 
so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  may  be  with  the  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  quarters,  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  hindered  by  the  nails,  we 
need  not  be  apprehensive  of  trouble,  provided  the  horse  has  reason- 
able work  and  his  hoofs  proper  care. 

GROWTH  OF  THE  HOOF. 

All  parts  of  the  hoof  grow  downward  and  forward  with  equal 
rapidity,  the  rate  of  growth  being  largely  dependent  upon  the  amount 
of  blood  supplied  to  the  pododerm,  or  "quick."  Abundant  and  reg- 
ular exercise,  good  grooming,  moistness  and  suppleness  of  the  hoof, 
going  barefoot,  plenty  of  good  food,  and  at  proper  intervals  removing 
the  overgrowth  of  hoof  and  regulating  the  bearing  surface,  by  increas- 
ing the  volume  and  improving  the  quality  of  the  blood  flowing  into 
the  pododerm,  favor  the. rapid  growth  of  horn  of  good  quality;  while 
lack  of  exercise,  dryness  of  the  horn,  and  excessive  length  of  the  hoof 
hinder  growth. 

The  average  rate  of  growth  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  a  month. 
Hind  hoof's  grow  faster  than  fore  hoofs  and  unshod  ones  faster  than 
shod  ones.  The  time  required  for  the  horn  to  grow  from  the  coronet 
to  the  ground,  though  influenced  to  a  slight  degree  by  the  precited 
conditions,  varies  in  proportion  to  the  distance  of  the  coronet  from  the 
ground.     At  the  toe,  depending  on  its  height,  the  horn  grows  down 

179 


13 

in  eleven  to  thirteen  months,  at  the  side  wall  in  six  to  eight  months, 
and  at  the  heels  in  three  to  live  months.  We  can  thus  estimate  with 
tolerable  accuracy  the  time  required  for  the  disappearance  of  such 
defects  in  the  hoof  as  cracks,  clefts,  etc. 

Irregular  growth  is  not  infrequent.  The  almost  invariable  cause  of 
this  is  an  improper  distribution  of  the  body  weight  over  the  hoof — 
that  is,  an  unbalanced  foot.  Colts  running  in  soft  pasture  or  confined 
for  long  periods  in  the  stable  are  frequently  allowed  to  grow  hoofs  of 
excessive  length.  The  long  toe  becomes  "dished" — that  is,  concave 
from  the  coronet  to  the  ground — the  long  quarters  curl  forward  and 
inward  and  often  completely  cover  the  frog  and  lead  to  contraction  of 
the  heels,  or  the  whole  hoof  bends  outward  or  inward,  and  a  crooked 
foot,  or,  even  worse,  a  crooked  leg,  is  the  result  if  the  long  hoof  be 
allowed  to  exert  its  powerful  and  abnormally  directed  leverage  for 
but  a  few  months  upon  young  plastic  bones  and  tender  and  lax  articu- 
lar ligaments.  All  colts  are  not  foaled  with  straight  legs,  but  failure 
to  regulate  the  length  and  bearing'  of  the  hoof  may  make  a  straight 
leg  crooked  and  a  crooked  leg  worse,  just  as  intelligent  care  during 
the  growing  period  can  greatly  improve  a  congenital^  crooked  limb. 
If  breeders  were  more  generally  cognizant  of  the  power  of  overgrown 
and  unbalanced  hoofs  to  divert  the  lower  bones  of  young  legs  from 
their  proper  direction,  and,  therefore,  to  cause  them  to  be  moved 
improperly,  with  loss  of  speed  and  often  with  injury  to  the  limbs,  we 
might  hope  to  see  fewer  knock-kneed,  bow-legged,  "splay-footed," 
"  pigeon-toed,"  cow- hocked,  interfering,  and  paddling  horses. 

If  in  shortening  the  hoof  one  side-wall  is,  from  ignorance,  left  too 
long  or  cut  down  too  low  with  relation  to  the  other,  the  foot  will  be 
unbalanced,  and  in  traveling  the  long  section  will  touch  the  ground 
first  and  will  continue  to  do  so  till  it  has  been  reduced  to  its  proper 
level  (length)  by  the  increased  wear  which  will  take  place  at  this  point. 
While  this  occurs  rapidly  in  unshod  hoofs,  the  shoe  prevents  wear  of 
the  hoof,  though  it  is  itself  more  rapidly  worn  away  beneath  the  high 
(long)  side  than  elsewhere,  so  that  by  the  time  the  shoe  is  worn-out  the 
tread  of  the  shoe  may  be  flat.  If  this  mistake  be  repeated  from  month 
to  month,  the  part  of  the  wall  left  too  high  will  grow  more  rapidly 
than  the  low  side  whose  pododerm  is  relatively  anemic  as  a  result  of 
the  greater  weight  falling  into  this  half  of  the  hoof,  and  the  ultimate 
result  will  be  a  "wry,"  or  crooked  foot. 

CARE  OF  UNSHOD  HOOFS. 

The  colt  should  have  abundant  exercise  on  dry  ground.  The  hoofs 
will  then  wear  gradually  and  it  will  only  be  necessary  from  time  to 
time  to  regulate  any  uneven  wear  with  the  rasp  and  to  round  off  the 
sharp  edge  about  the  toe  in  order  to  prevent  breaking  away  of  the 
wall. 

179 


14 


Colts  in  the  stable  can  not  wear  down  their  hoofs,,  so  that  every  four 
to  six  weeks  they  should  be  rasped  down  and  the  lower  edge  of  the 
wall  well  rounded  to  prevent  chipping.  The  soles  and  clefts  of  the 
frog  should  be  picked  out  every  few  days  and  the  entire  hoof  washed 
clean.  Plenty  of  clean  straw  litter  should  be  provided.  Hoofs  that 
are  becoming  "awry"  should  have  the  wall  shortened  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  straighten  the  foot-axis.  This  will  ultimately  produce  a 
good  hoof  and  will  improve  the  position  of  the  limb. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A  HEALTHY  HOOF. 

A  healthy  hoof  (figs.  1  and  8)  is  equall}r  warm  at  all  parts,  and  is  not 
tender  under  pressure  with  the  hands  or  moderate  compression  with 

pincers.  The  coronet  is  soft 
and  elastic  at  all  points  and 
does  not  project  beyond  the 
surface  of  the  wall.  The  wall 
(tig.  8)  is  straight  from  coronet 
to  ground,  so  that  a  straight- 
edge laid  against  the  wall  from 
coronet  to  ground  parallel  to 
the  direction  of  the  horn  tubes 
x*  will  touch  at  every  point.  The 
wall  should  be  covered  with 
the  outer  varnish-like  layer 
(periople)  and  should  show  no 
cracks  or  clefts.  Every  hoof 
shows  "ring-formation,"  but 
the  rings  should  not  be  strongly 
marked  and  should  always  run 
parallel  to  the  coronary  band. 
Strongly  marked  ring-forma- 
tion over  the  entire  wall  is  an 
evidence  of  a  weak  hoof,  but 
when  limited  to  a  part  of  the 
wall  is  evidence  of  previous 
local  inflammation.  The  bulbs  of  the  heels  should  be  full,  rounded, 
and  of  equal  height.  The  sole  (fig.  1)  should  be  well  hollowed  out, 
the  white  line  solid,  the  frog  well  developed,  the  middle  cleft  of  the 
frog  broad  and  shallow,  the  spaces  between  the  bars  and  the  frog  wide 
and  shallow,  the  bars  straight  from  the  buttresses  toward  the  point  of 
the  frog,  and  the  buttresses  themselves  so  far  apart  as  not  to  press 
against  the  branches  of  the  frog.  A  hoof  can  not  be  considered  healthy 
if  it  presents  reddish  discolored  horn,  cracks  in  the  wall,  white  line, 
bars,  or  frog,  thrush  of  the  frog,  contraction  or  displacement  of  the 
heels.     The  lateral  cartilages  should  yield  readily  to  finger  pressure. 

179 


Fig.  1. — Ground  surface  of  a  right  fore  hoof  of  the  regu- 
lar form:  a,  a,  wall;  a-a,  the  toe;  a-b,  the  side  walls; 
b-d,  the  quarters;  c,  c,  the  bars;  d,  d,  the  buttresses; 
e,  lateral  cleft  of  the  frog;  /,  body  of  the  sole;  g,  g',  g", 
leafy  layer  (white  line)  of  the  toe  and  bars;  h,  body 
of  the  frog;  i,  i,  branches  of  the  frog:  k,  k,  horny  bulbs 
of  the  heels;  I,  middle  cleft  of  the  frog. 


15 


VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  HOOFS. 

As  among  a  thousand  human  faces  no  two  are  alike,  so  among  an 
equal  number  of  horses  no  two  have  hoofs  exactly  alike.  A  little 
study  of  different  forms  soon  shows  us,  however,  that  the  form  of 
every  hoof  is  dependent  in  great  measure  on  the  direction  of  the  two 
pastern  bones  as  viewed  from  in  front  or  behind,  or  from  one  side; 
and  that  all  hoofs  fall  into  three  classes  when  we  view  them  from  in 
front  and  three  classes  when  we  observe  them  in  profile.  Inasmuch 
as  the  form  of  every  foot  determines  the  peculiarities  of  the  shoe  that 
is  best  adapted  to  it,  no  one  who  is  ignorant  of,  or  who  disregards 
the  natural  form  of,  a  hoof  can  hope  to  understand  physiological 
shoeing. 

THE  FEET. 

FORMS  OF  FEET  VIEWED  FROM  IN  FRONT  AND  IN  PROFILE. 

Whether  a  horse's  feet  be  observed  from  in  front  or  from  behind, 
their  form  corresponds  to,  or  at  least  resembles,  either  that  of  the  reg- 
ular position  (fig.  2),  the  base- 
wide  or  toe-wide  position  (fig. 
3),  or  the  base-narrow  or  toe- 
narrow  position  (fig.  4). 

By  the  direction  of  the  imag- 
inary line  passing  through  the 
long  axes  of  the  two  pasterns 
(figs.  2,  4,  5)  we  determine 
whether  or  not  the  hoof  and 
pasterns  stand  in  proper  mu- 
tual relation. 

In  the  regular  standing  posi- 
tion (fig.  2)  the  foot-axis  runs  straight  downward  and  forward;  in  the 
base-wide  position  (fig.  3)  it  runs  obliquely  downward  and  outward, 

and  in  the  base-narrow  position 
(fig.  4)  it  runs  obliquely  down- 
ward and  inward. 

Viewing  the  foot  in  profile, 
we  distinguish  the  regular  posi- 
tion (fig.  5b)  and  designate  all 
forward  deviations  as  acute- 
angled  (long  toe  and  low  heel, 
fig.  5«),  and  all  deviations  back- 
ward from  the  regular  (steep 
toe  and  high  heel,  fig.  5c)  as 
steep-toed,  or  stumpy.  When 
the  body- weight  is  evenly  distributed  over  all  four  limbs,  the  foot-axis 
should  be  straight;  the  long  pastern,  short  pastern,  and  wall  at  the  toe 
should  have  the  same  slant. 

179 


Fig. 


-Pair  of  fore  feet  of  regular  form  in  regular 
standing  position. 


Fig.  3. — Pair  of  fore  feet  of  base-wide  form  in  toe-wide 
standing  position. 


16 

A  front  hoof  of  the  regular  standing  position. — The  outer  wall  is  a 
little  more  slanting  and  somewhat  thicker  than  the  inner.  The  lower 
border  of  the  outer  quarter  describes  the  arc  of  a  smaller  circle — that 
is,  is  more  sharply  bent  than  the  inner  quarter.  The  weight  falls  near 
the  center  of  the  foot  and  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  whole  bottom 
of  the  hoof.  The  toe  forms  an  angle  with  the  ground  of  45°  to  50°  and 
is  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  long  pastern.     The  toe  points  straight 

ahead,  and  when  the  horse 
is  moving  forward  in  a 
straight  line  the  hoofs  are 
picked  up  and  carried  for- 
ward in  a  line  parallel  to 
the  middle  line  of  the  body, 
and  are  set  down  flat. 
Coming  straight  toward 
the  observer  the  hoofs  seem 
to  rise  and  fall  perpendic- 
ularly. 

A  hoof  of  the  base-wide 
position. — This  is  always  awry.  The  outer  wall  is  more  slanting,  longer, 
and  thicker  than  the  inner,  the  outer  quarter  more  curved  than  the  inner, 
and  the  outer  half  of  the  sole  wider  than  the  inner.  The  weight  falls 
largely  into  the  inner  half  of  the  hoof.  In  motion  the  hoof  is  moved 
in  a  circle.  From  its  position  on  the  ground  it  breaks  over  the  inner 
toe,  is  carried  forward  and  inward  close  to  the  supporting  leg,  thence 


Fig.  4. 


-Pair  of  fore  feet  of  base-narrow  form  in  toe-narrow 
standing  position. 


Fig.  5.— Forms  of  hoofs:  a,  side  view  of  an  acute-angled  fore  foot  (shod);  b,  side  view  of  a  regular 
fore  foot,  showing  themost  desirable  degree  of  obliquity  (45°);  c,  side  view  of  a  stumpy,  or  "up- 
right," fore  foot;  obliquity  above  50°.  In  a,  b,  c,  note  particularly  the  relation  between  the  length 
of  the  shoe  and  the  overhanging  of  the  heels.    Note  also  the  toe  roll  of  the  shoes. 

forward  and  outward  to  the  ground,  which  the  hoof  meets  first  with 
the  outer  toe.  Horses  that  are  toe- wide  ("  splay-footed" — toes  turned 
outward)  show  all  these  peculiarities  of  hoof-form  and  hoof-flight  to 
a  still  more  marked  degree  and  are  therefore  more  prone  to  "inter- 
fere" when  in  motion. 

A  hoof  of  the  base-narrow  position. — This  also  is  awry,  but  not  to  so 
marked  a  decree  as  the  base-wide  hoof.  The  inner  wall  is  usually  a  little 
more  slanting  than  the  outer,  the  inner  half  of  the  sole  wider  than  the 

179 


17 

outer,  and  the  inner  quarter  more  curved  than  the  outer.  The  outer 
quarter  is  often  flattened  and  drawn  in  at  the  bottom.  The  weight  falls 
largely  into  the  outer  half  of  the  hoof.  In  motion  the  hoof  breaks  over 
the  outer  toe,  is  carried  forward  and  outward  at  some  distance  from  the 
supporting  leg,  thence  forward  and  inward  to  the  ground,  which  it 
generally  meets  with  the  outer  toe.  The  foot  thus  moves  in  a  circle 
whose  convexity  is  outward,  a  manner  of  flight  called  "paddling."  A 
base-narrow  horse  whose  toes  point  straight  ahead  frequently  "inter- 
feres," while  a  toe-narrow  (pigeon-toed)  animal  seldom  does. 

Regular  hoof. — A  regular  hoof  (fig.  5£),  viewed  from  one  side,  has 
a  straight  foot-axis  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  50°. 
The  weight  falls  near  the  center  of  the  foot  and  there  is  moderate 
expansion  of  the  quarters. 

Acute-angled  hoof. — An  acute-angled  hoof  (fig.  5a)  has  a  straight 
foot-axis  inclined  at  an  angle  less  than  45°  to  the  horizon.  The 
weight  falls  more  largely  in  the  back  half  of  the  hoof  and  there  is 
greater  length  of  hoof  in  contact  with  the  ground  and  greater  expan- 
sion of  the  heels  than  in  the  regular  hoof. 

Upright,  or  sttfmpy,  hoof. — In  the  upright,  or  stumpy,  hoof  (fig.  5c) 
the  foot-axis  is  straight  and  more  than  55°  steep.  The  hoof  is  rela- 
tively short  from  toe  to  heel,  the  weight  falls  farther  forward,  and 
there  is  less  expansion  of  the  heels  than  in  the  regular  hoof. 

Wide  and  narrow  hoofs. — Finally,  there  are  wide  hoofs  and  narrow 
hoofs,  dependent  solely  upon  race  and  breeding.  The  wide  hoof  is 
almost  circular  on  the  ground  surface,  the  sole  but  little  concave, 
the  frog  large,  and  the  quality  of  the  horn  coarse.  The  narrow  hoof 
has  a  strongly  "cupped"  sole,  a  small  frog,  nearly  perpendicular  side 
walls,  and  fine-grained,  tough  horn. 

Hind  hoofs.— Hind  hoofs  are  influenced  in  shape  b}^  different  direc- 
tions of  their  pasterns  much  as  front  feet  are.  A  hind  hoof  is  not 
round  at  the  toe  as  a  front  hoof  is,  but  is  more  pointed.  Its  greatest 
width  is  two-thirds  of  the  way  back  from  toe  to  heel,  the  sole  is  more 
concave,  the  heels  relatively  wider,  and  the  toe  about  10°  steeper  than 

in  front  hoofs. 

THE  SHOE. 

PRELIMINARY  EXAMINATION. 

The  object  of  the  examination  is  to  ascertain  the  direction  and  posi- 
tion of  the  limbs,  the  shape,  character,  and  quality  of  the  hoofs,  the 
form,  length,  position,  and  wear  of  the  shoe,  the  number,  distribu- 
tion, and  direction  of  the  nails,  the  manner  in  which  the  hoof  leaves 
the  ground,  its  line  of  flight,  the  manner  in  which  it  is  set  to  the 
ground,  and  all  other  peculiarities,  that  at  the  next  and  subsequent 
shoeings  proper  allowances  may  be  made  and  observed  faults  corrected. 
The  animal  must  therefore  be  observed  both  at  rest  and  in  motion. 
6777— No.  179—03 2 


18 

At  rest,  the  observer  should  stand  in  front  and  note  the  slant  of  the 
long  pasterns.  Do  they  drop  perpendicularly,  or  slant  downward  and 
outward  (base- wide  foot),  or  downward  and  inward  (base-narrow  foot)  ? 
AYhatever  be  the  direction  to  the  long  pastern,  an  imaginary  line  pass- 
ing through  its  long  axis,  when  prolonged  to  the  ground,  should  appar- 
ently pass  through  the  middle  of  the  toe.  But  if  such  line  cuts 
through  the  inner  toe  the  foot-axis  is  not  straight,  as  it  should  be,  but 
is  broken  inward  at  the  coronet,  an  indication  that  either  the  outer 
wall  of  the  hoof  is  too  long  (high)  or  that  the  inner  wall  is  too  short 
(low).  On  the  contrary,  if  the  center  line  of  the  long  pastern  falls 
through  the  outer  toe  the  foot-axis  is  broken  outward  at  the  coronet, 
an  indication  that  either  the  inner  wall  is  too  long  or  the  outer  wall 
too  short. 

The  observer  should  now  place  himself  at  one  side,  two  or  three 
paces  distant,  in  order  to  view  the  limb  and  hoof  in  profile.  Note  the 
size  of  the  hoof  in  relation  to  the  height  and  weight  of  the  animal,  and 


Fk;.  G. — Limbs  and  hoofs  in  profile:  a,  Side  view  of  foot  with  the  foot-axis  broken  backward  as  a 
result  of  too  long  a  toe.  The  amount  of  horn  to  be  removed  from  the  toe  in  order  to  straighten  the 
foot-axis  is  denoted  by  a  dotted  line;  b,  side  view  of  a  properly  balanced  foot,  with  a  straight  foot-axis 
of  desirable  slant;  c,  side  view  of  stumpy  foot  with  foot-axis  broken  forward  as  a  result  of  overgrowth 
of  the  quarters.  The  amount  of  horn  to  be  removed  in  order  to  straighten  the  foot-axis  is  shown 
by  a  dotted  line. 

the  obliquity  of  the  hoof.  Is  the  foot-axis  straight?  that  is,  does 
the  long  pastern  have  the  same  slant  as  the  toe  'I  or  does  the  toe  of  the 
hoof  stand  steeper  than  the  long  pastern  (fig.  6c)? — in  which  case  the 
foot-axis  is  broken  forward  at  the  coronet,  an  indication,  usually,  that 
the  quarters  are  either  too  high  or  that  the  toe  is  too  short. 

If  the  long  pastern  stands  steeper  than  the  toe  (fig.  6a)  the  foot-axis 
is  broken  backward,  in  which  case  the  toe  is  too  long  or  the  quarters 
are  too  low  (short).  In  figures  6a  and  6c  the  dotted  lines  passing 
from  toe  to  quarters  indicate  the  amount  of  horn  which  must  be 
removed  in  order  to  straighten  the  foot-axis,  as  shown  in  figure  6b. 
Note  also  the  length  of  the  shoe. 

Next,  the  feet  should  be  raised  and  the  examiner  should  note  the 
outline  of  the  foot,  the  conformation  of  the  sole,  form  and  quality 
of  the  frog,  form  of  the  shoe,  wear  of  the  shoe,  and  the  number  and 

179 


19 

distribution  of  the  nails.  Does  the  shoe  fully  cover  the  entire  lower 
border  of  the  wall?  or  is  it  too  narrow  or  fitted  so  full  on  the  inside 
that  it  has  given  rise  to  interfering?  or  has  the  shoe  been  nailed  on 
crooked?  or  has  it  become  loose  and  shifted?  is  it  too  short  or  so  wide 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches  as  not  to  support  the  buttresses  of  the 
hoof?  Does  the  shoe  correspond  with  the  form  of  the  hoof?  Are  the 
nails  distributed  so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  expan- 
sion of  the  quarters  ?  are  there  too  many  ?  are  they  too  large  ?  driven 
too  "line"  or  too  high?  These  are  questions  which  the  observer 
should  put  to  himself. 

Note  carefully  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe.  It  is  the  unimpeachable 
evidence  of  the  manner  in  which  the  hoof  has  been  set  to  the  ground 
since  the  shoe  was  nailed  to  it,  and  gives  valuable  "pointers"  in  lev- 
eling the  hoof.  Wear  is  the  effect  of  friction  between  the  shoe  and 
the  ground  at  the  moment  of  contact.  Since  the  properly  leveled 
hoof  is  set  flat  to  the  ground,  the  "grounding  wear"  of  a  shoe  should 
be  uniform  at  every  point,  though  the  toe  will  always  show  wear  due 
to  scouring  at  the  moment  of  "breaking  over."  Everything  which 
tends  to  lengthen  the  stride  tends  also  to  make  the  "grounding  wear" 
more  pronounced  in  the  heels  of  the  shoe,  while  all  causes  which 
shorten  the  stride,  as  stiffening  of  the  limbs  through  age,  overwork, 
or  disease,  bring  the  grounding  wear  nearer  the  toe. 

An  exception  should  be  noted,  however,  in  founder,  in  which  the 
grounding  wear  is  most  pronounced  at  the  heels. 

If  one  branch  of  the  shoe  is  found  to  be  worn  much  thinner  than 
the  other,  the  thinner  branch  has  either  been  set  too  near  the  middle 
line  of  the  foot  (fitted  too  close),  where  it  has  been  bearing  greater 
weight  while  rubbing  against  the  ground,  or,  what  is  much  more 
often  the  case,  the  section  of  wall  above  the  thinner  branch  has  been 
too  long  (too  high),  or  the  opposite  section  of  wall  has  been  too  short 
(too  low).  "One-sided  wear,  uneven  setting  down  of  the  feet,  and  an 
unnatural  course  of  the  wall  are  often  found  together."  How  much  an 
old  shoe  can  tell  us,  if  we  take  time  and  pains  to  decipher  its  scars! 

The  horse  should  next  be  observed  at  a  walk  and  at  a  trot  or  pace, 
from  in  front,  from  behind,  and  from  the  side,  and  the  "breaking 
over,"  the  carriage  of  the  feet,  and  the  manner  of  setting  them  to  the 
ground  carefully  noted  and  remembered.  A  horse  does  not  always 
move  just  as  his  standing  position  would  seem  to  imply.  Often  there 
is  so  great  a  difference  in  the  form  and  slant  of  two  fore  hoofs  or  two 
hind  hoofs  that  we  are  in  doubt  as  to  their  normal  shape,  when  a  few 
steps  at  a  trot  will  usually  solve  the  problem  instantly  by  showing  us 
the  line  of  flight  of  the  hoofs  and  referring  them  to  the  regular,  base- 
wide,  or  base-narrow  form. 

No  man  is  competent  either  to  shoe  a  horse  or  to  direct  the  work 
till  he  has  made  the  precited  observations. 

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20 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  HOOF  FOR  THE  SHOE. 

After  raising  the  clinches  of  the  nails  with  a  rather  dull  clinch- 
cutter  ("buffer")  and  drawing  the  nails  one  at  a  time,  the  old  shoe  is 
critically  examined  and  laid  aside.  Remaining  stubs  of  nails  are  then 
drawn  or  punched  out  and  the  hoof  freed  of  dirt  and  partially  detached 
horn.  The  farrier  has  now  to  "dress"  the  overgrown  hoof  to  receive 
the  new  shoe;  in  other  words,  he  has  to  form  a  base  of  support  so 
inclined  to  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  that  in  motion  this  surface 
shall  be  set  flat  upon  the  ground.  He  must  not  rob  the  hoof  nor 
leave  too  much  horn;  either  mistake  may  lead  to  injury,  if  he  has 
made  a  careful  preliminary  examination  he  knows  what  part  of  the 
wall  requires  removal  and  what  part  must  be  left,  for  he  already 
knows  the  direction  of  the  foot-axis  and  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe,  and 
has  made  up  his  mind  just  where  and  how  much  horn  must  be  removed 
to  leave  the  hoof  of  proper  length  and  the  foot-axis  straight. 

A  greatly  overgrown  hoof  may  be  quickly  shortened  with  sharp 
nippers  and  the  sole  freed  of  semidetached  flakes  of  horn.  The  con- 
cave sole  of  a  thick-walled,  strong  hoof  may  be  pared  out  around  the 
point  of  the  frog,  but  not  so  much  as  to  remove  all  evidences  of  exfoli- 
ation. The  wall  should  be  leveled  with  the  rasp  till  its  full  thickness, 
the  white  line,  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  margin  of  the  sole 
are  in  one  horizontal  plane,  called  the  "  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof." 
The  bars  if  long  may  be  shortened,  but  never  pared  on  the  side.  The 
branches  of  the  sole  in  the  angle  between  the  bars  and  the  wall  of  the 
quarters  should  be  left  a  little  lower  than  the  wall,  so  as  not  to  be 
pressed  upon  by  the  inner  web  of  the  shoe.  "Corns,"  or  bruises  of 
the  pododerm,  are  usually  a  result  of  leaving  a  thick  mass  of  dry, 
unyielding  horn  at  this  point.  The  frog  should  not  be  touched  fur- 
ther than  to  remove  tags  or  layers  that  are  so  loose  as  to  form  no 
protection.  A  soft  frog  will  shorten  itself  spontaneously  by  the  exfo- 
liation of  superficial  layers  of  horn,  while  if  the  frog  is  diy,  hard,  and 
too  prominent  it  is  better  to  soften  it  by  applying  moisture  in  some 
form  and  allow  it  to  wear  away  naturally  than  to  pare  it  down. 
It  is  of  advantage  to  have  the  frog  project  below  the  level  of  the  wall 
an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  a  plain  shoe,  though  we  rarely  see 
frogs  of  such  size  except  in  draft  horses.  The  sharp  lower  border  of 
the  wall  should  be  rounded  with  the  rasp  to  prevent  its  being  bent 
outward  and  broken  away.  Finally,  the  foot  is  set  to  the  ground  and 
again  observed  from  all  sides  to  make  sure  that  the  lines  bounding  the 
hoof  correspond  with  the  direction  of  the  long  pastern. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  SHOE. 

The  shoe  is  an  artificial  base  of  support,  b}r  no  means  ideal,  because 
it  interferes  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  the  physiology  of  the 

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21 

foot,  but  indispensable  except  for  horses  at  slow  work  on  soft  ground. 
Since  a  proper  surface  of  support  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  pre- 
serving the  health  of  the  feet  and  legs,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the 
various  forms  of  shoes  best  adapted  to  the  different  forms  of  hoofs. 
Certain  properties  are  common  to  all  shoes  and  may  be  considered 
first.  They  are  form,  width,  thickness,  length,  surfaces,  borders, 
''fullering,"  nail  holes,  and  clips. 

Form. — Every  shoe  should  have  the  form  of  the  hoof  for  which  it 
is  intended,  provided  the  hoof  retains  its  proper  shape;  but  for  every 
hoof  that  has  undergone  change  of  form  we  must  endeavor  to  give  the 
shoe  that  form  which  the  hoof  originally  possessed.  Front  shoes  and 
hind  shoes,  rights  and  lefts,  should  be  distinctly  different  and  easily 
distinguishable. 

Width. — All  shoes  should  be  wider  at  the  toe  than  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches.  The  average  width  should  be  about  double  the  thickness  of 
the  wall  at  the  toe. 

Thickness. — The  thickness  should  be  sufficient  to  make  the  shoe  last 
about  four  weeks  and  should  be  uniform  except  in  special  cases. 

Length. — This  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof  viewed  in 
profile.  The  acute-angled  hoof  (fig.  5  a)  has  long  overhanging  heels, 
and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  weight  borne  by  the  leg  falls 
in  the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof.  For  such  a  hoof  the  branches  of  the 
shoe  should  extend  back  of  the  buttresses  to  a  distance  nearty  double 
the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  For  a  hoof  of  the  regular  form  (figs.  5b 
and  8)  the  branches  should  project  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness 
of  the  shoe.  In  a  stumpy  hoof  (fig.  5c)  the  shoe  need  not  project  more 
than  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  In  all  cases  the  shoe  should  cover  the 
entire  "bearing  surface"  of  the  wall. 

Surfaces. — The  surface  that  is  turned  toward  the  hoof  is  known  as 
the  "upper,"  or  "hoof  surface,"  of  the  shoe.  That  part  of  the  hoof 
surface  which  is  in  actual  contact  with  the  horn  is  called  the  "bearing 
surface"  of  the  shoe.  The  "bearing  surface"  should  be  perfectly 
horizontal  from  side  to  side  and  wide  enough  to  support  the  full  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of 
the  margin  of  the  sole.  The  bearing  surface  should  also  be  perfectly 
flat,  except  that  it  may  be  turned  up  at  the  toe  ("rolling-motion" 
shoe,  fig.  5  a,  b,  c).  The  surface  between  the  bearing  surface  and  the 
inner  edge  of  the  shoe  is  often  beaten  down  or  concaved  to  prevent 
pressure  too  far  inward  upon  the  sole.  This  "concaving,"  or  "seat- 
ing," should  be  deeper  or  shallower  as  the  horny  sole  is  less  or  more 
concave.  As  a  rule  strongly  "cupped"  soles  require  no  concaving 
(hind  hoofs,  narrow  fore  hoofs). 

Borders. — The  entire  outer  border  should  be  beveled  under  the 
foot.  Such  a  shoe  is  not  so  readily  loosened,  nor  is  it  so  apt  to  lead  to 
interfering. 

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Fullering. — This  is  a  groove  in  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe.  It 
should  pass  through  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  be  clean, 
and  of  uniform  width.  It  is  of  advantage  in  that  it  makes  the  shoe 
lighter  in  proportion  to  its  width,  and,  by  making  the  ground  surface 
somewhat  rough,  tends  to  prevent  slipping. 

Nail  holes. — The  shoe  must  be  so  "punched"  that  the  nail  holes  will 
fall  directly  on  the  white  line.  They  should  be  confined  to  the  fore 
half  of  front  shoes,  but  may  occupy  the  anterior  two-thirds  of  hind 
shoes.  For  a  medium-weight  shoe  three  nail  holes  in  each  branch  are 
sufficient,  but  for  heavier  shoes,  especially  those  provided  with  long 
calks,  eight  holes  are  about  right,  though  three  on  the  inside  and  four 

on  the  outside  may  do. 

Clips. — These  are  half-circular 
ears  drawn  up  from  the  outer 
edge  of  the  shoe  either  at  the  toe 
or  opposite  the  side  wall.  The 
height  of  a  clip  should  equal  the 
thickness  of  the  shoe,  though  the}7" 
should  be  even  higher  on  hind 
shoes  and  when  a  leather  sole  is 
interposed  between  shoe  and 
hoof.  Clips  secure  the  shoe 
against  shifting.  A  side  clip 
should  always  be  drawn  up  on 
that  branch  of  the  shoe  that  first 
meets  the  ground  in  locomotion. 

SPECIAL  PECULIARITIES  OF 
THE  CHIEF  CLASSES  OF 
SHOES. 


Fig.  7.— Left  fore  hoof  of  regular  form,  shod  with  a 
plain  "fullered"  shoe.  Note  the  distribution  of 
the  nails,  length  of  the  fuller  (crease),  and  the 
closeness  of  the  endsof  the  shoe  to  the  branches 
ipf  the  frog. 


(1)  A  shoe  for  a  regular  hoof 
(figs.  7  and  8).— This  fits  when  its 
outer  border  follows  the  wall 
closely  in  the  region  of  the  nail 
holes  and  from  the  last  nail  to  the 
end  of  the  branch  gradually  projects  beyond  the  surface  of  the  wall  to 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  and  extends  back  of  the  buttresses  an  amount  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  The  shoe  must  be  straight,  firm,  air- 
tight, its  nail  holes  directly  over  the  white  line,  and  its  branches  far 
enough  from  the  branches  of  the  frog  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  foot 
pick.     Branches  of  the  shoe  must  be  of  equal  length. 

In  fitting  a  shoe  to  a  hoof  of  regular  form  we  follow  the  form  of  the 
hoof,  but  in  base-wide  and  base-narrow  hoofs,  which  are  of  irregular 
form,  wo  must  pay  attention  not  only  to  the  form  of  the  hoof,  but 
also  to  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  and  the  consequent  distribution  of 
weight  in  the  hoof,  because  where  the  most  weight  falls  the  surface  of 

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23 

support  of  the  foot  must  be  widened,  and  where  the  least  weight  falls 
(opposite  side  of  the  hoof)  the  surface  of  support  should  be  narrowed. 
In  this  wa}^  the  improper  distribution  of  weight  within  the  hoof  is 
evenl}r  distributed  over  the  surface  of  support. 

(2)  A  shoe  for  a  base-wide  hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  fitted  full  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  foot  and  fitted  close  on  the  outer  side,  because  the 
inner  side  bears  the  most  weight.  The  nails  in  the  outer  branch  are 
placed  well  back,  but  in  the  inner  branch  are  crowded  forward  toward 
the  toe. 

(3)  A  shoe  for  a  base-narrow  hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  just  the 
reverse  of  the  preceding.  The  outer  branch  should  be  somewhat 
longer  than  the  inner. 

(4)  A  shoe  for  an  acute-angled  hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  long  in  the 
branches,  because  most  of  the  weight  falls  in  the  posterior  half  of  the 
foot.  The  support  in  front  should  be  diminished  either  by  turning 
the  shoe  up  at  the  toe  or  by  beveling-  it  under  the  toe  (tig.  5a). 


i^g£g&&wvv«-. 


Fig.  8. — Side  view  of  hoof  and  shoe  shown  in  fig.  7.  Note  the  straight  toe,  weak  ring  formation 
running  parallel  to  the  coronet,  clinches  low  down  and  on  a  level,  length  of  the  shoe,  and  the 
nnder-hevel  at  the  toe  and  heel. 

(5)  A  shoe  for  a  stumpy  hoof. — This  shoe  should  be  short  in  the 
branches,  and  for  pronounced  cases  should  increase  the  support  of 
the  toe,  where  the  most  of  the  weight  falls,  by  being  beveled  down- 
ward and  forward. 

In  many  cases,  especially  in  the  hoofs  of  draft  horses  that  stand  very 
close  together,  the  coronet  of  the  outer  quarter  is  found  to  stand  out 
be}rond  the  lower  border  of  the  quarter.  In  such  cases  the  outer 
branch  of  the  shoe  from  the  last  nail  back  must  be  fitted  so  full  that 
an  imaginary  perpendicular  dropped  from  the  coronet  will  just  meet 
the  outer  border  of  the  shoe.  The  inner  branch,  on  the  other  hand, 
must  be  fitted  as  "close"  as  possible.  The  principal  thought  should 
be  to  set  the  new  shoe  farther  toward  the  more  strongly  worn  side. 
Such  n.  practice  will  render  unnecessary  the  widespread  and  popular 
fad  of  giving  the  outer  quarter  and  heel  calk  of  hind  shoes  an  extreme 

179 


24 

outward  bend.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  that  in  fitting  the 
shoe  "full"  at  the  quarter  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  at  the 
quarter  be  not  left  unsupported  or  incompletely  covered,  to  be  pinched 
and  squeezed  inward  against  the  frog.  This  will  be  obviated  by 
making  the  outer  branch  of  the  shoe  sufficiently  wide  and  punching  it 
so  coarse  that  the  nails  will  fall  upon  the  white  line. 

HOT  FITTING. 

Few  farriers  have  either  the  time  or  the  skill  necessary  to  so  adjust 
a  cold  shoe  to  the  hoof  that  it  will  fit,  as  we  say,  "air-tight."  Though 
the  opponents  of  hot  fitting  draw  a  lurid  picture  of  the  direful  con- 
sequences of  applying  a  hot  shoe  to  the  hoof,  it  is  only  the  abuse  of 
the  practice  that  is  to  be  condemned.  If  a  heavy  shoe  at  a  yellow 
heat  be  held  tightly  pressed  against  a  hoof  which  has  been  pared  too 
thin,  till  it  embeds  itself,  serious  damage  may  be  done.  But  a  shoe  at 
a  dark  heat  may  be  pressed  against  a  properly  dressed  hoof  long 
enough  to  scorch  and  thus  indicate  to  the  farrier  the  portions  of  horn 
that  should  be  lowered,  without  appreciable  injury  to  the  hoof,  and  to 
the  ultimate  benefit  of  the  animal. 

The  horse  owner  should  insist  on  the  nails  being  driven  low.  Thej" 
should  pierce  the  wall  not  above  an  inch  and  five-eighths  above  the 
shoe.  A  nail  penetrating  the  white  line  and  emerging  low  on  the 
wall  destroys  the  least  possible  amount  of  horn,  has  a  wide  and  strong 
clinch,  rather  than  a  narrow  one  which  would  be  formed  near  the  point 
of  the  nail,  and  furthermore  has  the  strongest  possible  hold  on  the 
wall,  because  its  clinch  is  pulling  more  nearly  at  a  right  angle  to  the 
grain  (horn  tubes)  of  the  wall  than  if  driven  high.  Finally,  do  not 
allow  the  rasp  to  touch  the  wall  above  the  clinches. 

THE  BAR  SHOE. 

The  bar  shoe  (fig.  9)  has  a  variety  of  uses.  It  enables  us  to  give  the 
frog  pressure,  to  restore  it  to  its  original  state  of  activity  and  devel- 
opment when  by  reason  of  disuse  it  has  become  atrophied.  It  gives 
the  hoof  an  increased  surface  of  support  and  enables  us  to  relieve  one 
or  both  quarters  of  undue  pressure  that  may  have  induced  inflamma- 
tion and  soreness.  The  bar  of  the  shoe  should  equal  the  average 
width  of  the  remainder  of  the  shoe  and  should  press  but  lightly  on  the 
branches  of  the  frog.  The  addition  of  a  leather  sole  with  tar  and 
oakum  solo-packing  allows  us  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the  body 
over  the  entire  ground  surface  of  the  hoof. 

THE  RUBBER  PAD. 

Various  forms  of  rubber  pads,  rubber  shoes,  rope  shoes,  fiber  shoes, 
and  other  contrivances  to  diminish  shock  and  prevent  slipping  on  the 
hard  and  slippery  pavements  of  our  large  cities  are  in  use  in  ditfer- 

179 


25 

ent  parts  of  the  world.     In  Germany  the  rope  shoe  (a  malleable-iron 
shoe  with  a  groove  in  its  ground  surface  in  which  lies  a  piece  of  tarred 


Fig.  9. — An  acute-angled  left  fore  hoof  shod  with  a  bar  shoe.  Note  the  width  and  position  of  the 
bar  and  the  fact  that  the  nails  are  placed  well  toward  the  toe,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
expansion  of  the  quarters. 

rope)  is  extensively  used  with  most  gratifying  results.     It  is  cheap, 
durable,  easily  applied,  and  effective. 


Fig.  10. — A  fairly  formed  right  fore  ice  shoe  for  a  roadster.  The  toe  and  outer-heel  calks  cut  at  right 
angles,  and  the  inner  heel  calk  is  slender  and  blunt.  The  back  surface  of  the  toe  calk  should  be 
perpendicular. 

In  the  large  cities  of  England  and  the  United  States  rubber  pads  are 
extensively  used.  They  are  rather  expensive,  but  are  quite  efficient 
in  preventing  slipping"  on  polished  and  gummy  pavements,  though  not 

179 


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so  effective  on  ice.  Figure  11  is  an  illustration  of  one  of  the  best  of 
many  rubber  pads.  The  rubber  is  stitched  and  cemented,  to  a  leather 
sole  and  is  secured  by  the  nails  of 
a  three-quarter  shoe.  Such  a  pad 
will  usually  last  as  long  as  two 
shoes.  They  may  be  used  contin- 
uously, not  only  without  injury  to 


Fig.  12.— A  narrow  right  fore  hoof  of  the  base- 
wide  (toe-wide)  standing  position,  shod  with 
a  plain,  "  dropped-crease  "  shoe  to  prevent  the 
toe-cutting  (interfering).  The  dotted  line  at 
the  inner  toe  indicates  the  edge  of  the  wall 
which  was  rasped  away  in  order  to  narrow  the 
hoof  along  the  striking  section.  Note  the  in- 
ward bevel  of  the  shoe  at  this  point,  the  dropped 
crease,  the  distribution  of  the  nails,  the  long 
"full"  inner  branch,  and  the  short  "close" 
outer  branch. 

179 


Fig.  11. — Left  fore  foot  of  regular  form  shod  with  a 
rubber  pad  and  "  three-quarter"  shoe.  (Ground 
surface. ) 

the  hoof  but  to  its  great  benefit. 
The  belief,  unsupported  by  evi- 
dence, that  rubber  pads  "  draw  the 
feet"  keeps  many  from  using  them. 
A  human  foot  encased  in  a  rubber 
boot  may  eventually  be  blistered 
by  the  sweat  poured  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  skin  and  held  there  by 
the  impervious  rubber  till  decom- 
position takes  place  with  the  for- 
mation of  irritating  fatty  acids;  but 
there  is  no  basis  for  an  analoov  in 
the  hoof  of  a  horse. 


27 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    SHOEING    IN    CONNECTION  WITH    "INTER- 
FERING," ETC. 

Some  illustrations,  designed  to  illustrate  shoeing-  in  connection  with 
"interfering"  and  "forge,"  are  given  herewith. 


Fig.  13.— Hoof  surface  of  a  right  hind  shoe  to  prevent  interfering.  The  inner  branch  has  no  nai] 
holes  and  is  fitted  and  beveled  under  the  hoof.  Note  the  number  and  position  of  the  nail  holes, 
the  clip  on  the  outer  side-wall,  and  the  narrowness  and  bend  of  the  inner  branch. 


Fig.  14. — Ground  surface  of  shoe  shown  in  the  previous  figure.    The  inner  nailless  branch  has  the 
thickness  of  the  outer  branch  plus  its  calk,  so  that  the  inner  and  outer  quarters  of  the  hoof  are 
equidistant  from  the  ground. 
179 


28 


Fig.  15.— Side  view  of  a  fore  hoof  shod  so  as  to  quicken  the  "breaking  over"  (quicken  the  action) 
in  a  "  forger."     Note  the  short  shoe,  heel  calks  inclined  forward,  and  the  rolled  toe. 


Fig.  16.— Side  view  of  a  short-toed  hind  hoof  of  a  forger,  shod  to  slow  the  action  and  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  fore  heels  by  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe.    Note  the  elevation  of  the  short  toe  by  means 
of  a  toe  calk  and  the  projection  of  the  toe  beyond  the  shoe.     When  such  a  hoof  has  grown  more 
toe  the  toe  calk  can  be  dispensed  with  and  the  shoe  set  farther  forward. 
17y 


29 


Fig.  17.— A  toe-weight  shoe  to  increase  the  length  of  stride  of  fore  feet.    The  nails  are  placed  too 
far  back,  and  the  shoe  has  no  characteristic  form,  but  the  weight  is  properly  placed. 


pIG.  is.— Most  common  form  of  punched  heel-weight  shoe  to  induce  high  action  in  fore  feet.    The 
profile  of  the  shoe  shows  a  "  roll "  at  the  toe  and  "swelled  "  heels.    The  weight  is  well  placed,  but 
"rolling"  the  toe  and  raising  the  heels  lower  action.    The  shoe  would  be  much  more  effective  if 
of  uniform  thickness  and  with  no  roll  at  the  toe. 
179 


30 


FARMERS'   BULLETINS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  available  for  distribution,  showing 
the  number  and  title  of  each.  Copies  will  be  sent  free  to  any  address  in  the  United 
States  on  application  to  a  Senator,  Representative,  or  Delegate  in  Congress,  or  to  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  Numbers  omitted  have  been  discon- 
tinued, being  superseded  by  later  bulletins. 

No.  16.  Leguminous  Plants.  No.  22.  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals.  No.  24.  Hog  Cholera  and 
Swine  Plague.  No.  25.  Peanuts:  Culture  and  Uses.  No.  27.  Flax  for  Seed  and  Fiber.  No.  28. 
Weeds:  And  How  to  Kill  Them.  No.  29.  Souring  and  Other  Changes  in  Milk.  No.  30.  Grape  Dis- 
eases on  the  Pacific  Coast.  No.  31.  Alfalfa,  or  Lucern.  No.  32.  Silos  and  Silage.  No.  33.  Peach 
Growing  for  Market.  No.  34.  Meats:  Composition  and  Cooking.  No.  35.  Potato  Culture.  No.  36. 
Cotton  Seed  and  Its  Products.  No.  37.  Ka.lr  Corn:  Culture  and  Uses.  No.  38.  Spraying  for  Fruit  Dis- 
eases. No.  39.  Onion  Culture.  No.  41.  Fowls:  Care  and  Feeding.  No.  42.  Facts  About  Milk.  No.  43. 
Sewage  Disposal  on  the  Farm.  No.  44.  Commercial  Fertilizers.  No.  45.  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored 
Grain.  No.  46.  Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates.  No.  47.  Insects  Affecting  the  Cotton  Plant.  No.  48. 
The  Manuring  of  Cotton.  No.  49.  Sheep  Feeding.  No.  60.  Sorghum  as  a  Forage  Crop.  No.  51. 
Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens.  No.  52.  The  Sugar  Beet,  No.  53.  How  to  Grow  Mushrooms.  No. 
54.  Some  Common  Birds.  No.  55.  The  Dairy  Herd.  No.  56.  Experiment  Station  Work— I.  No.  57. 
Butter  Making  on  the  Farm.  No.  58.  The  Soy  Bean  as  a  Forage  Crop.  No.  59.  Bee  Keeping.  No.  60. 
Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco.  No.  61.  Asparagus  Culture.  No.  62.  Marketing  Farm  Produce.  No.  63. 
Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm.  No.  64.  Ducks  and  Geese.  No.  65.  Experiment  Station  Work— II.  No. 
66.  Meadows  and  Pastures.  No.  68.  The  Black  Rot  of  the  Cabbage.  No.  69.  Experiment  Station 
Work— III.  No.  70.  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Grape.  No.  71.  Essentials  in  Beef  Production.  No.  72. 
Cattle  Ranges  of  the  Southwest.  No.  73.  Experiment  Station  Work— IV.  No.  74.  Milk  as  Food. 
No.  75.  The  Grain  Smuts.  No.  76.  Tomato  Growing.  No.  77.  The  Liming  of  Soils.  No.  78.  Experi- 
ment Station  Work— V.  No.  79.  Experiment  Station  Work— VI.  No.  80.  The  Peach  Twig-borer. 
No.  81.  Corn  Culture  in  the  South.  No.  82.  The  Culture  of  Tobacco.  No.  83.  Tobacco  Soils.  No.  84. 
Experiment  Station  Work— VII.  No.  85.  Fish  as  Food.  No.  86.  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants.  No.  87. 
Experiment  Station  Work— VIII.  No.  88.  Alkali  Lands.  No.  89.  Cowpeas.  No.  91.  Potato  Diseases 
and  Treatment.  No.  92.  Experiment.  Station  Work— IX.  No.  93.  Sugar  as  Food.  No.  94.  The  Vege- 
table Garden.  No.  95.  Good  Roads  for  Farmers.  No.  96.  Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton.  No.  97. 
Experiment  Station  Work— X.  No.  98.  Suggestions  to  Southern  Farmers.  No.  99.  Insect  Enemies 
of  Shade  Trees.  No.  100.  Hog  Raising  in  the  South.  No.  101.  Millets.  No.  102.  Southern  Forage 
Plants.  No.  103.  Experiment  Station  Work— XL  No.  104.  Notes  on  Frost.  No.  105.  Experiment 
Station  Work— XII.  No.  106.  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle.  No.  107.  Experiment  Station  Work— XIII. 
No.  108.  Saltbushes.  No.  109.  Farmers'  Reading  Courses.  No.  110.  Rice  Culture  in  the  United 
States.  No.  111.  Farmers'  Interest  in  Good  Seed.  No.  112.  Bread  and  Bread  Making.  No.  113. 
The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It.  No.  114.  Experiment  Station  Work— XIV.  No.  115.  Hop  Culture 
in  California.  No.  116.  Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing.  No.  118.  Grape  Growing  in  the  South.  No. 
119.  Experiment  Station  Work— XV.  No.  120.  Insects  Affecting  Tobacco.  No.  121.  Beans,  Peas, 
and  Other  Legumes  as  Food.  No.  122.  Experiment  Station  Work— XVI.  No.  123.  Red  Clover 
Seed.  No.  124.  Experiment  Station  Work— XVII.  No.  125.  Protection  of  Food  Products  from  Injuri- 
ous Temperatures.  No.  126.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings.  No.  127.  Important  Insecti- 
cides. No.  128.  Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food.  No.  129.  Sweet  Potatoes.  No.  131.  Household  Tests 
for  Detection  of  Oleomargarine  and  Renovated  Butter.  No.  132.  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat. 
No.  133.  Experiment  Station  Work— XVIII.  No.  134.  Tree  Planting  in  Rural  School  Grounds.  No. 
135.  Sorghum  Sirup  Manufacture.  No.  136.  Earth  Roads.  No.  137.  The  Angora  Goat.  No.  138.  Irri- 
gation in  Field  and  Garden.  No.  139.  Emmer:  A  Grain  for  the  Semiarid  Regions.  No.  140.  Pineapple 
Growing.  No.  141.  Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm.  No.  142.  The  Nutritive  and  Economic  Value  of 
Food.  No.  143.  The  Conformation  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle.  No  144.  Experiment  Station  Work— 
XIX.  No.  145.  Carbon  Bisulphid  as  an  Insecticide.  No.  146.  Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  No. 
147.  Winter  Forage  Crops  for  the  South.  No.  148.  Celery  Culture.  No.  149.  Experiment  Station 
Work— XX.  No.  150.  Clearing  New  Land.  No.  151.  Dairying  in  the  South.  No.  152.  Scabies  in 
Cattle.  No.  153.  Orchard  Enemies  in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  No.  154.  The  Fruit  Garden:  Prepara- 
tion and  Care.  No.  155.  How  Insects  Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts.  No.  156.  The  Home  Vineyard. 
No.  157.  The  Propagation  of  Plants.  No.  158.  How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches.  No.  159. 'Scab 
in  Sheep.  No.  161.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Fruit  Growers.  No.  162.  Experiment  Station  Work— 
XXI.  No.  164.  Rape  as  a  Forage  Crop.  No.  165.  Culture  of  the  Silkworm.  No.  166.  Cheese  Making 
on  the  Farm.  No.  167.  Cassava.  No.  168.  Pearl  Millet,  No.  169.  Experiment  Station  Work— XXII. 
No.  170.  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding.  No.  171.  The  Control  of  the  Codling  Moth.  No.  172.  Scale 
Insects  and  Mites  on  Citrus  Trees.  No.  173.  Primer  of  Forestry.  No.  174.  Broom  Corn.  No.  175. 
Borne  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice.  No.  176.  Cranberry  Culture.  No.  177. 
Squab  Raising.  No.  178.  Insects  Injurious  in  Cranberry  Culture.  No.  179.  Horseshoeing.  No.  180. 
Game  Laws  for  1903.  No.  181.  Pruning.  No.  182.  Poultry  as  Food.  No.  183.  Meat  on  the  Farm — 
Butchering,  curing,  etc.  No.  184.  Marketing  Live  Stock.  "  No.  185.  Beautifying  the  Home  ({rounds. 
No.  186.  Experiment  Station  Work — XXIII.  No.  187.  Drainage  of  Farm  Lands.  No.  188.  Weeds  Used 
in  Medicine.  No.  189.  Information  Concerning  the  Mexican  Cotton-Boll  Weevil.  No.  190.  Experi- 
ment Station  Work— XXIV.  No.  191.  The  Cotton  Bollworm.  No.  192.  Barnyard  Manure.  No.  193. 
Experiment  Station  Work— XXV.    No.  194.  Alfalfa  Seed. 

o 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
Tufts  University 
200  Westboro  Road 
North  Grafton,  MA  01536 


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